Autism cannot be treated as a behavior problem. It is a neurodevelopmental disorder, hence the brain develops and operates differently since the onset of life itself. These brain variations affect the way a child expresses himself, learns and controls his/her emotions, and reacts to the surrounding world.
We start to think differently about the child in terms of patience, empathy and increased awareness when we know the brain. Such knowledge can be used to prevent the blame game with the child but seek meaningful assistance with families and teachers.
Being learned causes sympathy. Empathy results in improved communication, improved instruction and a more joyous offspring. Autism is not bad at experiencing the worlds, it is just another way.
Thinking, learning, emotions and behavior are supported by the different sections of the brain. In autism, these areas of the brain work differently and this may have an impact on the way a child lives his or her life.
A frontal lobe deals with planning, problem-solving, feeling control, and sociological intelligence.
The relationships in this area may be different in autistic people. Consequently, a child could struggle to control emotions, change attention on tasks or to interpret social messages like facial expressions or body language. Such actions do not show the character of stubbornness; they are connected with variations in the brain functions.
The temporal lobe will assist us in comprehending language, tonality of voice, facial expression, and social communication.
The speech and sounds do not make sense to many autistic people. Due to this reason, certain children might respond slowly, evade eye contact, or visual learning styles. This merely indicates what happens to their brain.
The parietal lobe deals with body awareness, sensory information and coordination.
Variations in this respect can cause sensory sensitivities like response to loud noises, bright light or some surface texture. Certain children might also have problems in coordination or in imitating actions.
The behaviors are as a result of the brain getting sensory messages in a more extreme or abnormal manner.
The visual processing is under the control of the occipital lobe.
Autistic people are usually keen in paying attention to details. They can see patterns, shapes and tiny details that other people fail to see. Such skill can be transformed into one of the strongest in such spheres as drawing, design, technology, and the ability to solve problems analytically.
The cerebellum provides support on balance, coordination of movement, timing and learning habits.
This area has been found to differ among a number of the autistic individuals. This can influence motor ability like handwriting, coordination and balance during physical activity.
The emotional part of the brain is the limbic. It regulates emotions, stress reactions, attachment and memory.
This system has been proposed to be used differently by autistic individuals in processing emotions and sensory experiences. Consequently, feelings can become more intense or even more intense. This can cause meltdowns, nervousness or take a longer period to relax.
One should not consider these reactions as misbehavior; it represents dissimilarity in the mechanism of emotional system.
We start to look at autism through the prism of brain development and it leads to us judging in favor of it.
Autistic children do not have it in their to give. They just have their brains perceive things, emotions and senses differently. Through knowledge, families, teachers and communities can provide those enabling conditions that can help autistic individuals to grow, learn and prosper.
Studies imply the existence of differences in various parts of the brain such as frontal lobe, temporal lobe, cerebellum and limbic system. These domains affect social communication, emotional control and sensory processing.
Yes. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder, i.e., the brain does not develop and work as it would at early age. The differences influence sensory perception, behaviour, and communication.
The sensory sensitivity occurs due to the fact that the brain interprets the sensory signals differently e.g. sound, touch, and light. It is able to intensify the daily experience.
Yes. The way the brain functions in autism assists parents, instructors, and therapists to come up with improved communication, learning and emotional support strategies.
2. Courchesne, E., et al. “Neuroanatomical Differences in Autism.” Journal of Neuroscience.
3. Amaral, D. G., Schumann, C. M., and Nordahl, C. W. “Neuroanatomy of Autism.” Trends in Neurosciences.
4. Pelphrey, K. A. and Carter, E. J. “Social Perception of the Brain in Autism? Annals of the New York academy of sciences.
5. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Autism Spectrum Disorder – Developmental Research of the brain.
Studies imply the existence of differences in various parts of the brain such as frontal lobe, temporal lobe, cerebellum and limbic system. These domains affect social communication, emotional control and sensory processing.
Yes. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder, i.e., the brain does not develop and work as it would at early age. The differences influence sensory perception, behaviour, and communication.
The sensory sensitivity occurs due to the fact that the brain interprets the sensory signals differently e.g. sound, touch, and light. It is able to intensify the daily experience.
Yes. The way the brain functions in autism assists parents, instructors, and therapists to come up with improved communication, learning and emotional support strategies.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neurological condition that is mainly related to movement, posture, and coordination as a result of brain injury or maldeveloped brains. CP is a group of conditions that affect movement and posture. It’s caused by damage that occurs to the developing brain, most often before birth.https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cerebral-palsy/symptoms-causes/syc-20353999
Although CP is commonly linked to motor difficulties, its effect on mental performance is diverse in different people. One should also note that CP does not necessarily mean intellectual disability, and lots of children and adults with CP are regularly intelligent. Learning how to support learning and daily living with CP can be supported by understanding the intellectual profile of people with CP and educators, therapists and families. Not all individuals with cerebral palsy have intellectual disability. Cognitive abilities can vary widely from normal intelligence to significant impairment.
Intellectual functioning in cerebral palsy (CP) varies widely, ranging from above average intelligence to severe intellectual disability. Many people who have CP possess normal thinking capabilities, which means that their intellectual capacity, learning and problem-solving abilities are intact. These people can have difficulties walking, fine motor skills or talking, however, their intellectual capabilities are not impaired. They can fully engage in learning and social activities with proper accommodations which may include physical therapy, assistive devices or a program in the classroom.
There are those children with CP who have mild intellectual impairment which is normally indicated by range of IQ between 50-70. Such people can need additional assistance in planning, solving problems, and perceiving complicated instructions. But, generally, they can work on simple academic assignments and engage in social and functional activities under supervision. Interventions, special education, and therapy can significantly improve their learning and independence.
Fewer children with CP might be moderately intellectually impaired with an IQ of between 35-50 years. Such people tend to develop basic communication and self-care abilities but need a constant reminder of other day-to-day activities. Children with moderate intellectual challenges are offered educational programs that concentrate on practical skills, functional independence and adaptive learning but not on traditional academics.
In more extreme situations, people with CP can possess severe to profound intellectual impairment (IQ below 35). Such persons are seriously restricted in their comprehension, communication, and self-care, and they need a lot of support to help them with all activities in their daily lives. The issues notwithstanding, early intervention, systematic therapy and personalized care can be used to enhance the quality of life and functional abilities.
It is significant to appreciate the intellectual variability in CP in order to plan education, therapy and daily life support. Children and adults with CP can engage in meaningful participation and increase their overall quality of life through early interventions and with more personalized strategies.
Rosenbaum, P., Paneth, N., Leviton, A., Goldstein, M., and Bax, M. (2007). A report: The definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 49(s109), pp 8-14.
Novak, I., Hines, M., Goldsmith, S., and Barclay, R. (2012). Cerebral palsy. The Lancet, 379(9814), 2165-2174.
Odding, E., Roebroeck, M.E., & Stam, H.J. (2006). Cerebral palsy: Epidemiology, disability, and risk factors. Disability and Rehabilitation, 28(4), 183-191.
Pakula, A., Van Naarden Braun, K., and Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2009). Cerebral palsy: Epidemiology and classification. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics, 20(3), 425-452.
Earlier, it was scientifically believed that swallowing was an automatic process taking many years to be proved wrong. This means it was believed to be a natural practice by the body with no training required. But research has discovered that the act of swallowing is a motor skill that is acquired. It is like the brain knows how to swallow by practicing just like it knows how to walk, talk, or write.
Delays or problems in swallowing can also be relearned by the brain. The discovery holds significant implications on feeding therapy particularly among the Autism Spectrum Disordered (ASD) children.
Autistic children have feeding and swallowing difficulties. Developing children with autism have feeding and swallowing problems. These obstacles may arise due to a number of reasons.
Autistic children can be extremely sensitive in regard to taste, touch, smell, or heat. As an illustration, a child might not take food that is crunchy, sticky or put together.
Lips, tongue, jaw, throat, and breathing must be well coordinated to swallow. Certain children with autism might not be able to make such movements in a smooth manner.
Other children might possess weaker oral muscles and this may influence chewing, moving food in the mouth, and swallowing.
Motor planning refers to the capability of the brain to arrange and carry out the movements in the right sequence. Autistic children might take longer and practice more before they master these movement patterns.
The significant point that new studies convey is that these challenges are not enduring. Since the act of swallowing is a learned process, the brain can change and enhance with proper form of therapy.
A research article named Human Hyolaryngeal moves reveals adaptive motor learning in swallowing was identified in which muscles of the throat are able to adapt to the harder task of swallowing.
Researchers also introduced resistance to swallowing as it was a little harder in the study. The muscles of the throat and the brain adjusted to it over time.
Through practice, the body has rectified the movements and has enhanced its swallowing behavior. It is what is known as motor learning.
Motor learning is a process in which the brain develops a movement by practicing, getting feedback and making minor corrections.
This observation indicates that swallowing is not an innate skill. Guided training and practice can help to improve it.
Conventional feeding therapy may at times center its primary attention on helping the child to eat more or chew longer. Nevertheless, recent studies indicate that the therapeutic approach should involve medication on how the brain may learn the swallowing movement.
Feeding therapy can be enhanced with the aid of the following principles of the motor learning.
Children should undergo a lot of practice in the movements of swallowing in a controlled and safe manner. Consistency is used to create good brain neuro-pathways in the movement.
Simple feedback that can be used with children include:
Amazing news is that feedback assists the brain to interpret what has been moved well.
The therapy must start with the foods that are already accepted by the child. Introducing the changes to the texture, taste, or temperature gradually will allow the brain to adapt without overpowering the child.
Minor variations in the thickness, texture or taste of food enable the child to acquire new swallowing behaviors progressively.
Autistic children have a tendency to learn well when the therapy is related to their interests or preferred foods. Motivation and participation may be encouraged and rewarded.
This will transform feeding therapy that is all about forcefully feeding a child into learning how to swallow comfortably and safely by the brain and body.
Autistic children usually tend to process sensory information in different ways. The sense signals of taste, smell, feel, and temperature are useful in the preparation of the body to swallow. When a food is overwhelming, the muscles of the child may be paralyzed, release, or lose control when attempting to swallow. With the assistance of the therapist, the brain can learn by creating new sensory experiences gradually in a secure and encouraging manner:
This procedure is useful in enhancing feeding confidence and swallowing with time.
Yes. This is because new studies indicate that swallowing is a motor skill that is acquired by training and feedback. The brain is able to adjust and re-learn the swallowing movements with time.
Difficulties in feeding can be as a result of sensory sensitivities, oral-motor weakness, or coordination problems, or motor planning.
Yes. Children can be trained to swallow using feeding therapy, which is a motor learning theory, repetition, feedback, and the gradual exposure to sensory exposure.
The brain is provided with a signal by taste, smell, and texture to prepare the mouth and the throat to swallow. In cases when these sensory messages feel overwhelming, the process of swallowing might become hard.
Humbert, I. A., & German, R. Z. (2012). There is adaptive motor learning in human hyolaryngeal movements in the process of swallowing. Dysphagia, 27(3), 343-351.
Ben-Pazi, H., et al. (2018). Motor skills learning in autism: Processes and findings. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 60 (6), 543-551.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2023). Autistic children feeding and swallowing disorders. ASHA Clinical Guidelines.
Autism or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that impairs the perception and interaction of a person with the world. It can be described as not all social communication, sensory processing, and behaviour patterns or interests that can be repetitive or extremely narrow.
Spectrum is a term that demonstrates the broadness of challenges and capabilities that autistic individuals have, some of them might require serious assistance in their everyday life, and others live on their own and are more productive in some fields, such as memory, logic, or creativity. Autism is not a disease to be treated but it is another way of thinking and perceiving the world.
Autism unit suit those schools/ centers which prefer small group learning and treatment sessions in the quiet and well-arranged and child-friendly atmosphere.
Total Area: 30 ft x 40 ft = 1,200 sq. ft
Purpose: To have a one-on-one approach and guided activities to autistic children.
Capacity: 8-10 children at once (2 children in each cabin x 4-5 cabins).
Cabin Dimension: 8 ft x 9 ft (72 sq. ft in a cabin).
Cabin design (8×9 ft 2 Students/1 Teacher)
The cabins will be small but enough to work concentratedly.
Two children and one adult chair on one small table (3×4 ft).
Two children seats, one adult seat.
A single low shelf (3-4 ft high) of learning materials or therapy objects.
Wall visual charts (daily routine, face of emotions or behavior reminders).
Floor play or Sensory activity Mat area (2×3 ft).
Tip: The furniture should be meticulously light and portable in order to use the same space as a playing space, art space, or therapy space.
Planned Design of 30×40 ft Hall.
It can accommodate 5 cabins (8×9 ft) plus open spaces, such as:
Area Approx. Size Purpose
4-5 cabins 8×9 ft each Learning / Therapy (2 children + 1 teacher)
Sensory / Group area 12×12 ft Joint play, balance or motor skill.
Quiet / Calm corner 6×8 ft Relaxation or self-regulation.
Staff / Storage area 6×8 ft Files, equipment, materials.
Pathways 3-4 ft broad Safe and open passage.
Easy to Imagine Layout Plan (Example)
Front (Entrance Side):
1 small waiting/staff corner (6×8 ft)
Room of 3 cabins (8×9 ft) on one side.
Other side: 2 cabins and open sensory zone (12×12 ft)
Back: silent corner and store.
The walk spaces between cabins should be 3-4 ft in each row.
LED lights (soft white) – no stutter and brightness.
Whatever you can do, have as much natural light as possible, and have light curtains to regulate glare.
Light blue, cream, pastel green paint cabs.
Dark or glittering patterns on walls or floor are to be avoided.
Carpets or rubber mats on the floor help to generate down noise.
Use foam and fabric wall panels in case of strong echo.
Suggested: Soft foam, vinyl and rubber flooring.
Non-slip and easy to clean.
Provides convenience in floor activities.
Mutes sound and shields children in case of falling.
Introduce other textures (smooth, soft, bumpy mats) in sensory zones to stimulate exploration.
1 low shelf (3-4 ft) of toys, books and tools.
Write pictures, words (toys, books, blocks) on the labels.
Having too many things the eye can see can be too stimulating.
One staff cupboard (locked) (in storage corner).
Special Corners and Common Areas.
Sensory Area (12×12 ft)
Swings, balance boards, textured mats, soft blocks, or balls.
Play group with or without movement therapy.
Have comfortable walls and floors.
Quiet / Calm Corner (6×8 ft)
Options of bean bag, soft lighting, quiet music.
In children that are anxious or overstimulated.
Staff / Storage Area (6×8 ft)
To store reports, therapy materials and equipment.
Should contain a cupboard with lock and small desk.
Safety and Accessibility
Each cabin is supervised by one teacher or therapist (serves 2 students).
One or two aides to aid in transitions, toileting, lunch, and cleaning.
A coordinator/ special educator to oversee and organize activities.
Time Activity
9:00-9:15 Arrival and settling in
9:15-10:00 Cabin session (individual work/pair work)
10:00-10:30 Snack / hygiene routine
10:30-11:00 Sensory play / group activity
11:00-11:30 Second cabin session
11:30-12:00 Quiet corner/story time/ departure.
Autism may be observed and diagnosed at the age of 18 months or 3 years. Others display symptoms at a tender age although doctors tend to give a definite diagnosis before the age of two. This is due to the fact that through this time, the speech, behavior and social development of a child will be easier to observe.
In most instances, doctors and parents begin to notice the symptoms even before a child is 2 years old, such as not responding to their name, lack of eye contact or showing no desire to play among other people. Nevertheless, each child develops in its own way and thus, doctors would rather observe the behavior of a child over a period of time before declaring it to be autistic.
Autism may not be apparent among children with milder symptoms until the child enters school, where the teacher or parent may notice that the child has a problem with social interactions, communication, or routine adherence.
The recommendation suggests that every child should be checked on autism at the age of 18 months and once more at 24 months during routine checkups with the doctor (Turner, 2015). This assists in the early detection of autism so that special assistance (known as early intervention) may commence thus enhancing the growth of the child.
References:
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), “Identification, Evaluation, and Management of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder,” Pediatrics Journal, 2020.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Detection and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder,” 2024.
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Autism Spectrum Disorder, 2023.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental condition, which influences individual thinking, learning, communication, and other forms of behavior. It is referred to as a spectrum since all those with autism are different. A few children can be helped with some slight assistance, whereas others can require assistance during their entire lives. Knowledge of the levels of autism assists parents, teachers, and professionals to offer the appropriate type of assistance to a particular child.
Autism, as defined in DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition), is broken down into three levels. These scales determine the extent to which an individual requires assistance or support in their lives. Intelligence or worth is not the issue they are concerned with, they just define how much help is required.
This is the least extreme form of autism. Someone who is at Level 1 will be able to talk, learn, and handle most things independently, however, he/she might feel problems in social situations. They may have difficulty making friends, conceptualizing jokes, and participating in group activities. Stress or frustration may come about due to changes in day to day routine. Through guidance, counseling and patience they can perform well in school and in life.
As an example, a Level 1 student may be a student who speaks well and prefers solitude and gets upset when plans are abruptly changed. Through adequate assistance they would be able to learn to cope with new situations and gain confidence.
Level 2 individuals require additional assistance in communicating and controlling their daily tasks. They can speak with brief sentences, delay in replying or saying the repetitions of some words or behaviors. They are used to standard procedures and can be extremely disheartening towards change. It is also common to work on one interest long hours.
Such children and adults enjoy the benefits of regular therapy, special education programs and regular care at home and school. Through a good family and community, their communication and behavior may be modified in the long term.
This is the most extreme kind of autism. Level 3 is someone who can barely communicate and comprehend other people. Others might not even talk, use gestures, pictures, or gadgets. Even minor changes in the environment can cause them to be very upset. Diligent reactions and repetitive behaviors are the order of the day.
At this stage, children require assistance in their daily activities, therapy sessions and close monitoring all the time. They can progress and acquire new skills as they go as long as they are supported at a very early age and assisted throughout the process.
Due to the growing awareness about autism in Pakistan, many families are still finding it hard to get the correct services. The knowledge of these three levels assists parents and educators to understand how to program therapy and education based on the individual needs of the child. Companies like the Association for Persons with Exceptional Needs (APEN) in Karachi are trying to give better opportunities, training and awareness to the children with autism and other special needs.
Each autistic child has his or her strengths, talents and challenges. Through early diagnosis, family support and professional direction, a great number of children may lead good and productive lives. The most important thing is to love continuously, be patient and accept.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.
Autism Speaks. (n.d.). Autism levels: An overview of the 3 Autism levels. Accessed on 16th October, 2014.
Medical News Today. (2024). What are the levels of autism? Article retrieved on 13th July 2018 at, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325106.
Swallowing disorders or dysphagia are conditions that arise when an individual experiences difficulties in swallowing food, liquids and even saliva. It could be caused by a stroke, old age or neurological disorders that could lead to weakness of the throat muscles. Otherwise, it may cause improper nutrition, dehydration or severe conditions, such as food getting into the airway, which may cause diseases like pneumonia.
In the recent researches, it has been established that swallowing issues can be addressed successfully with the help of the modern methods of therapy. The study published in the International Journal of Mental Health Nursing (2025) states that modifying the diet of a patient can significantly enhance his/her energy and protein consumption. This is because when they are able to make the food softer or thicken the liquids to enable them to swallow, they are able to eat safely and remain well-nourished. These eating habits prevent choking and enable one to remain healthy and strong even with his/her swallowing problems.
According to other studies, including those by BMC Geriatrics (2025) and Trials (2023), sensory and electrical neurostimulation, and interactive swallowing training are important. Sensory stimulation methods involve the use of temperature, taste, or touch to assist in triggering swallowing reflex whereas electrical stimulation is used to pass slight impulses to the throat muscles to enhance strength and coordination. The two methods are useful in re-educating the brain and muscles involved in swallowing. The interactive computer games used as swallowing exercises in the meantime make the therapy very interesting and entertaining. This interaction makes patients playful and this practice will result in more rapid recovery and ultimately higher long-term outcomes.
On the whole, the effectiveness of these contemporary methods of rehabilitation has been demonstrated to be very high in terms of the enhancement of swallowing, the preservation of the airway, and the proper nutrition of patients. They also increase confidence and ease in the process of eating and this goes a long way in increasing the quality of life of the patient. A combination of dietary adjustment with neurostimulation and interactive training can provide a total and innovative, comprehensive treatment to swallowing disorders by healthcare personnel.
خصوصی تعلیم ایک ایسا تعلیمی نظام ہے جو ان بچوں کے لیے بنایا گیا ہے جو جسمانی، ذہنی، سماعتی، بصری یا سیکھنے کی مشکلات کا شکار ہوتے ہیں۔ ان بچوں کو عام تعلیمی ماحول میں وہ سہولتیں اور توجہ نہیں مل پاتیں جو ان کی انفرادی ضروریات کو پورا کرسکیں۔ اس لیے خصوصی تعلیم کا مقصد یہ ہے کہ ہر بچے کی صلاحیت، رفاور ضرورت کے مطابق اسے تعلیم دی جائے تاکہ وہ زندگی میں خود مختار اور کامیاب بن سکے۔
خصوصی تعلیم میں تربیت یافتہ اساتذہ، معاون آلات، تھراپیز (جیسے اسپیچ، آکیوپیشنل اور فزیوتھراپی) اور انفرادی تعلیمی منصوبے شامل ہوتے ہیں۔ اس کے ذریعے نہ صرف بچے کی تعلیمی کارکردگی بہتر ہوتی ہے بلکہ اس کا اعتماد، سماجی رویہ اور روزمرہ زندگی کی مہارتیں بھی مضبوط ہوتی ہیں۔ یوں خصوصی تعلیم بچوں کو معاشرے کا فعال اور مثبت حصہ بننے میں مدد فراہم کرتی ہے۔
صحت کے لیے بہترین غذا
صحت مند زندگی گزارنے کے لیے متوازن غذا بہت ضروری ہے۔ ایسی غذا جو جسم کو تمام ضروری غذائی اجزاء فراہم کرے، انسان کو نہ صرف بیماریوں سے محفوظ رکھتی ہے بلکہ ذہنی اور جسمانی طور پر توانا بھی رکھتی ہے۔ متوازن غذا میں پروٹین، کاربوہائیڈریٹ، چکنائی، وٹامنز اور منرلز مناسب مقدار میں شامل ہونے چاہئیں ۔
ناشتہ دن کی سب سے اہم خوراک ہے۔ صحت مند ناشتہ جسم کو دن بھر کے کاموں کے لیے توانائی فراہم کرتا ہے۔ ناشتے میں انڈہ، دودھ، دلیہ، یا سادہ روٹی کے ساتھ پھل شامل کیے جا سکتے ہیں۔
دوپہر کا کھانا غذائیت سے بھرپور ہونا چاہیے، لیکن بھاری نہیں۔ دال، سبزیاں، چپاتی یا براؤن چاول، دہی اور سلاد بہترین انتخاب ہیں۔ چکن یا مچھلی کو اُبال کر یا بھون کر استعمال کرنا تلی ہوئی اشیاء کے مقابلے میں زیادہ فائدہ مند ہے۔
رات کا کھانا ہلکا ہونا چاہیے تاکہ نظامِ ہضم پر بوجھ نہ پڑے۔ شوربے دار سبزیاں، سوپ یا دال کے ساتھ ہلکی روٹی بہترین رہتی ہے۔ رات کو دیر سے کھانا کھانے سے گریز کرنا چاہیے۔
پھل اور سبزیاں روزانہ کی غذا کا لازمی حصہ ہونا چاہئیں کیونکہ ان میں وٹامنز، فائبر اور اینٹی آکسیڈنٹس موجود ہوتے ہیں جو جسم کو مضبوط بناتے ہیں۔ اسی طرح روزانہ آٹھ سے دس گلاس پانی پینا ضروری ہے تاکہ جسم میں پانی کی کمی نہ ہو۔
زیادہ چکنائی، شکر اور نمک والی غذاؤں سے پرہیز کرنا چاہیے۔ فاسٹ فوڈ، کولڈ ڈرنکس اور پیک شدہ اشیاء وقتی لذت تو دیتی ہیں مگر طویل مدت میں صحت کو نقصان پہنچاتی ہیں۔
The reticular thalamic nucleus (TRN), which is its inhibitory and GABAergic neurons, serves as a gatekeeper of information passing in both directions between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. Its key activities are the regulation of attention and sensory processing, cortical and thalamic oscillations during sleep, as well as involvement in cognitive flexibility and motor control. Different behavior disorders have been associated with TRN dysfunction including autism, ADHD, and schizophrenia.
Key functions:
Gating sensory and attention:
This is achieved through the flow of sensory information in or out of the cortex, which is inhibited or disinhibited by the TRN, and is vital in selective attention to restrict the information processed.
Sleep and arousal:
It governs the sleeping rhythms, which are involved in the thalamocortical oscillations and arousal states.
Cognitive functions:
The TRN has higher order thinking such as executive functions, flexibility, and motor control.
Thalamus: Thalamic activity is modulated by stimulating the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which subsequently triggers thalamic activity.<|human|>Thalamic activity: The modulation of thalamic activity is achieved by stimulating the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which in turn induces thalamic activity.
It is fed by the cortex and other thalamic nuclei and projects inhibitory feed in to the thalamus, which regulates other thalamic relay neurons.
Role in neurological disorders:
Autism Spectrum Disability (ASD):
TRN dysfunction has been attributed to abnormalities of sensory processing and repetitive behaviors observed in ASD.
. Schizophrenia and ADHD:
The TRN is found to play a role in the observed deficits in these conditions that may have sensory disturbances and attention problems.